School reform 1782 1786 School reforms of Catherine II

The idea of ​​educating a “new breed of people” and its implementation in closed class educational institutions. The beginning of women's education in Russia.

The period of highest development of school affairs in Russia in the 18th century was the reign of Catherine II (1762 - 1796). Having received a European education, the Empress showed particular interest in the problems of upbringing and education. As part of the pan-European era of Enlightenment, Russian politicians, scientists, and teachers took an active part in developing educational issues: the ideas of developing a national education system, public education, and the feasibility of studying and using European experience on the basis of their own national traditions were proclaimed. In their works, Russian educators: A.A. Prokopovich-Antonsky, E.R. Dashkova, M.M. Snegirev, H.A. Chebotarev and others - proposed ideas for the free development of personality, rejecting the thesis of the predominant “natural education” and insisting on the priority of public education.

Catherine II also sought to use the achievements of the pedagogical thought of enlightened Europe to implement her projects. She carefully studied the works of J. Locke, the pedagogical theories of M. Montaigne, J.-J. Rousseau and others. For advice on implementing the reform of the school system in the Russian Empire, she turned to the famous French educator D. Diderot, who, at her request, drew up a “University Plan for Russia.”

The priority of school policy in the second half of the 18th century was to satisfy the cultural and educational interests of the nobility. Even during the reign of Peter I, a mandatory program was introduced, according to which the nobles were required to receive scientific and technical knowledge. Over time, only the children of small estates remained to study in the corresponding schools. Representatives of the nobility preferred to learn secular manners, enjoy theater and other forms of art. The desire for a new Western-style education is intensifying, choosing Greek-Latin education as a priority.

The Slavic-Greco-Latin Academy, which is entering a new period of its development, becomes the stronghold of Greco-Latin education in the Russian Empire. The number of hours for teaching Russian and Greek is increasing; Hebrew and new languages ​​are introduced, as well as a number of educational subjects: philosophy, history, medicine, etc. The Academy ceases to meet the needs of modern times, as it turns into an exclusively spiritual and educational institution. Its function in the education system is assumed by universities.

A unique manifesto of Russian pedagogy at the end of the 18th century was the collective treatise of Moscow University professors, “The Way of Teaching” (1771), which proclaimed important didactic ideas about active and conscious learning.

Special military educational institutions also achieved noticeable success in the second half of the 18th century: the Land and Naval Cadet Corps. According to the charter of 1766, the training program in them was divided into three groups of sciences: 1) those guiding the knowledge of subjects necessary for the civil rank (moral studies, jurisprudence, economics); 2) useful or artistic (physics, astronomy, geography, navigation, natural science, military sciences, architecture, music, dancing, fencing, sculpture); 3) guiding to the knowledge of other arts (logic, rhetoric, chronology, Latin and French, mechanics).

Also in the second half of the 18th century, private educational institutions intended for nobles developed. Education there was conducted according to the public school curriculum. Representatives of the noble nobility often educated their children at home, inviting foreign tutors.

In 1763, he became the empress's chief adviser on education in the Russian Empire. Ivan Ivanovich Betskoy (1704 – 1795), who received an excellent European education. In the same year, he presented to the Empress a plan for school reform, “General Institution for the Education of Both Sexes of Youth.” In order to smooth out class contradictions in society, he hoped through education create a "new breed of people"(fair nobles, industrialists, merchants, artisans). The main condition for the formation of the first generation of new people and... Betskoy believed in the strict isolation of pupils from the influence of an “immoral society”, from the prejudices and vices of the old generation. To do this, it was necessary to create a strong artificial barrier between generations, the role of which was intended to be played by closed educational institutions (boarding schools), where, under the guidance of enlightened mentors, “new people” were to be raised until they were 18–20 years old.

I. Betskoy also sought to create an educated third estate in Russia (merchants, townspeople, artisans). To achieve this goal, in the 1760s – 70s, a number of educational institutions were opened in Moscow and St. Petersburg: educational institutions, a commercial school, petty-bourgeois schools at the gentry corps and at the Academy of Arts, etc.

In 1764, the Smolny Institute was opened in St. Petersburg, marking the beginning of state noble female education in Russia. To draw up the training program at the institute, the cultural and educational experience of the French Enlightenment was used. In addition to the general program, which included the Russian language, geography, history, arithmetic, and foreign languages, good manners and home economics were taught.

In 1768, a “Private Commission on Schools” was created, which also prepared several projects for reform of the education system: 1) on lower village schools; 2) about lower city schools; 3) about secondary schools; 4) about schools for non-believers.

In the history of the reforms of the education system of Catherine’s era, two stages are distinguished: at the first stage (1760s), the ideas of the French enlightenment were noticeably influenced; at the second stage (from the beginning of the 1780s) - the influence of German teaching experience. By the beginning of the 1780s, the issue of school reform again became relevant.

School reform 1782 – 1786 Activities of F.I. Yankovic on the development of basic reform documents.

In 1782, by decree of Catherine II, the “Commission for the Establishment of Public Schools” was created, which developed a plan for the opening of primary, secondary and higher educational institutions, set out in the “Charter of Public Schools of the Russian Empire” (1786). The teacher took an active part in carrying out this reform Fedor Ivanovich Yankovic de Marievo (1741 – 1814). M.E. worked with him on the reform project. Golovin, F.V. Zuev, E.B. Syreyshchikov and others. The main points of reform were the establishment of a system of public schools, the training of teachers and the publication of good textbooks. On the initiative of F.I. Yankovic, in the St. Petersburg Main Public School, of which he was the director in 1783 - 85, the training of teachers was organized. With his direct participation, a set of textbooks was published: “Primer”, “Rules for Students”. “World History”, etc. When the Ministry of Public Education was established in Russia (1802), F.I. Yankovic became a member of the newly formed commission on schools.

According to the “Charter...” of 1786, cities opened small And main public schools. These were free mixed schools for the education of boys and girls. The middle strata of the urban population could study there. Schools were removed from the control of the church. Within two years, small schools were supposed to prepare literate graduates who could write and count well, who knew the basics of Orthodoxy and the rules of behavior. They taught reading, writing, numbering, sacred history, catechism, civics, penmanship, drawing, etc. Small schools were opened and maintained at the expense of the townspeople.

The main schools, whose duration of study was five years, were supposed to provide broader training on a multi-subject basis. In addition to the program of small schools, the course of study included: gospel, history, geography, geometry, mechanics, physics, natural science, architecture, etc. In the main schools it was also possible to obtain a pedagogical education. Teaching was carried out by secular teachers. Also, a class-lesson system was introduced in schools.

The reform of the 80s of the 18th century played an important role in the development of schooling in the Russian Empire. By the end of the 18th century, 254 schools were opened in cities, which were attended by 22 thousand students, 1800 of them girls. This accounted for a third of all students in educational institutions in Russia. Unfortunately, peasant children could not receive an education in these schools.

Propaganda of progressive pedagogical ideas in N.I. magazines Novikova. Revolutionary and educational ideas of A.N. Radishcheva.

If at the beginning of her reign Catherine II adhered to the ideas of the French Enlightenment, then at the end of her life she betrayed her liberal preferences. Evidence of this is the fate of the outstanding Russian educators N.I. Novikov (on charges of conspiracy against the autocracy imprisoned in the Peter and Paul Fortress) and A.N. Radishchev (for condemning the evils of the serfdom system, he was sent into exile in Siberia).

Nikolai Ivanovich Novikov (1744 – 1818) is known in the history of Russia as the publisher of the satirical magazines “Truten”, “Pustomelya”, “Painter” and others, in which he raised questions about serfdom, arbitrariness and abuses of the authorities, castigated the injustice and vices of his contemporary society, led controversy with Catherine II. N. Novikov dreamed of raising a new generation in the spirit of civic virtues.

Since 1777 AD I. Novikov begins to publish the magazine “Morning Light”, which was considered the first philosophical magazine in Russia, all the income from which went to the establishment and maintenance of primary public schools in St. Petersburg. Through the magazine, the publisher appealed to citizens to donate to the development of education in the state. And with funds received from donations, already in November 1777, a school for 30-40 people was opened at the Church of the Vladimir Mother of God, which later received the name Catherine’s. Next year a second one will open - the Alexander School. N.I. Novikov also published the first children's magazine in Russia, “Children's Reading for the Heart and Mind” (1785 – 1789). He established the first reading library in Moscow.

Russian educator, philosopher, writer, author of the famous work “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” (1790) Alexander Nikolaevich Radishchev (1749 – 1802) considered issues of pedagogy from the standpoint of natural scientific materialism of the 18th century, arguing that the natural abilities of people are different and largely depend on the influence of the external environment. In the development of abilities, primarily active thinking, he assigned a decisive role to education. The purpose of raising A.N. Radishchev believed in the formation of a human citizen, “able to fight for the happiness of his people and with hatred towards oppressors.” In his work “A Conversation about Being a Son of the Fatherland,” he names as the main task of education the formation of a person of high morality who gives all of himself for the good of the people, which is fundamentally at odds with the generally accepted understanding of patriotism at that time. A.N. Radishchev raised the question of raising a true patriot fighting the autocracy.

Insisting on the need to instill in children a true love for their homeland and people, the writer resolutely opposed the disdainful attitude towards national culture characteristic of the nobles, against an excessive passion for the French language; put forward an extensive educational program, which should have included knowledge about society and nature.

A.N. Radishchev criticized closed educational institutions isolated from the surrounding life, pointing out the need for an organization of education that would facilitate interaction with society. In conditions of an educational process isolated from society, the educator emphasized, it is impossible to raise a person with social aspirations and interests.

The influence of A.N.’s creativity was especially great. Radishchev on the development of revolutionary democratic thought in Russia in the 19th century.

LECTURE 7. CLASSICS OF WESTERN EUROPEAN PEDAGOGY OF THE 19TH CENTURY
The formation of pedagogical science in the 19th century. Theoretical justification and implementation of the ideas of real education by I. G. Pestalozzi.

The development of democratic pedagogical reforms in Europe in the 19th century and their implementation in school practice were strongly influenced by the ideas of the French Revolution (1789), which opened access for representatives of the “third estate” to secondary and higher educational institutions, which laid the foundation for the creation of a secular public school and higher education. special education.

The most significant changes occurred at the beginning of the 19th century in primary schools. Nona becomes state-owned, mass-produced, accessible to girls. In a number of Western European countries (Austria, Prussia, and later England, Italy, France, etc.) compulsory primary education was introduced. At the same time, the level and volume of elementary education increased due to the subjects of the humanities and natural sciences, and the educational function of the elementary school increased.

Secondary school in Europe, on the contrary, remained almost unchanged until the 70s of the 19th century. The most common and full-fledged type of secondary European school was the classical Latin school, which trained officials for public service. Gradually, Latin schools were transformed into gymnasiums, lyceums, colleges, grammar schools, etc.

The theory of education and upbringing underwent serious changes in the first half of the 19th century. The most significant contribution to its development, after Ya.A. Comenius, contributed by the Swiss teacher I.G. Pestalozzi, German teaching methodologists F.A. Disterweg and I.F. Herbart. The pedagogical theories they developed were on a democratic basis; their ideas were aimed at improving education, mainly in public schools.

School reform of Catherine II (1782-1786)

The “Commission on the Establishment of Public Schools” appointed by Catherine proposed a plan for the opening of primary, secondary and higher educational institutions, which was used in the “Charter of Public Schools of the Russian Empire” (1786). Free mixed schools for boys and girls (small and main public schools) were opened in cities. They were taught by civilian teachers. The class-lesson system has been approved. Small schools were designed for two years. They taught literacy, numeracy, the basics of Orthodoxy and rules of behavior. In the main schools, training lasted five years, the course included history, geography, physics, architecture, and foreign languages ​​for those interested. It was possible to obtain pedagogical education there.

Main events and facts

1689-1725 - reign of Peter I. Radical economic and political transformations in Russia, which required educational reform. Control over education shifts from the church to the state.

1698 - opening of the first garrison school (artillery school of the Preobrazhensky Regiment) to educate children of soldiers and sailors. It taught literacy, numeracy, and bombardment (artillery) training. Since 1721, a decree was issued on the creation of schools of this kind in each regiment. All schools were called Russian, because teaching was conducted in Russian.
1701 - opening of the state artillery and engineering school in Moscow for the training of “Pushkar and other outside ranks of people’s children.” The school was headed by the learned mathematician and astronomer Yakov Vilimovich Bruce (1670-1735). The school was divided into two levels: the lower one taught writing, reading, and arithmetic; upper - arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, drawing, fortification and artillery. Teachers for the school were trained locally from the most capable students.
1701 - opening of the school of mathematical and navigational sciences in the Sukharev Tower in Moscow. Professor A.D. Farvarson, invited from England, became the director of the school. The age of students is from 12 to 20 years. The school trained sailors, engineers, artillerymen, and servicemen. The students received “feed” money. For truancy, students faced a considerable fine, and for escaping from school - the death penalty. L. F. Magnitsky taught at the school for a long time.
1703 - opening of the Moscow Engineering School, modeled on the Russian Admiralty School of Navigation in Voronezh.
1706 - opening of the Novgorod bishops' school. Created
brothers Likhud, who later worked there as teachers.
The school provided students with a broad course of education. In the 20s
under the leadership of this school, 15 “smaller schools” were opened, in which
of which graduates of the Novgorod Bishops' School worked.
1707 - opening of a military surgical school in Moscow
hospital for training doctors. The training content included
anatomy, surgery, pharmacology, Latin, drawing. Education

was conducted primarily in Latin. Theoretical training was combined with practical work in the hospital.

1714 - decree of Peter I on the opening of digital schools. Creation of a network of public primary schools accessible to a fairly wide population. Children from 10 to 15 years of age were trained in order to prepare for state secular and military service as lower service personnel, to work in factories and shipyards.
1716 - opening of the first mining school in Karelia to train skilled workers and craftsmen. The school initially educated 20 children from poor noble families. Here, young men already working at the plant were trained in mining, and students of the Moscow School of Navigational and Mathematical Sciences were trained in blast furnace, forging, and anchor work.
1721 - opening of a school for training clerical workers.

Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov (1711-1765)

M. V. Lomonosov is a great Russian scientist-encyclopedist, naturalist, poet, historian, artist, educator. The son of a Pomor who came to Moscow on foot. Having hidden his peasant origin, in 1731 he entered the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, from where he was transferred to the academic gymnasium of St. Petersburg, and then sent abroad. Since 1745, academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Together with I. Shuvalov, he initiated the opening of Moscow University, which bears his name. The university had three faculties: law, philosophy and medicine. Two gymnasiums were opened at the university (for nobles and commoners). Training was conducted mainly in Russian.

Lomonosov developed “Regulations” for teachers and students of gymnasiums, where conscious, consistent, visual teaching is recommended. He considered the principles of feasibility and developmental education to be the leading didactic principles. He was one of the first in Russia to develop issues of content and teaching methods. He believed that teaching methods should correspond to the child’s age, and educational material should be commensurate with his strengths. Widely used specific factual material in teaching practice.
He made a number of scientific discoveries: he formulated the law of conservation of matter and laid the foundations of physical chemistry. He created a number of optical instruments and described the structure of the Earth. Author of works on Russian history.
Author of a number of textbooks. His “Russian Grammar” was considered the best manual for secondary schools for 50 years.
The main role in the implementation of educational plans was assigned to the Academy of Sciences, the most important activity of which was the creation of conditions for the education of domestic scientists.

Nikolai Nikitich Popovsky (1730-1760)

N. N. Popovsky is a student and follower of M. V. Lomonosov, rector of the university gymnasium. He translated the book “Thoughts on Education” by D. Locke, accompanying it with an introductory article, where he argued that this pedagogical work has universal, truly scientific value and will benefit the upbringing of children in Russia. He argued that the transfer of Western European pedagogical ideas to Russian soil requires a thoughtful and creative approach, which is necessary for the creation of a domestic science about the upbringing and teaching of children and youth.

Anton Alekseevich Barsov (1730-1791)

A. A. Barsov - scientist, linguist, professor at Moscow University, follower of M. V. Lomonosov, academician. The main work, “Brief Rules of Russian Grammar” (1773), served as the main textbook of the Russian language for several decades. He argued that given the absolute need to study foreign languages, mastering the native language is a priority, since it is the language of national culture and science.

For the first time he introduced the doctrine of the sentence into the content of syntax. He paid much attention to the development of problems of education and schooling.

Dmitry Sergeevich Anichkov (1733-1788)

D. S. Anichkov - Russian philosopher, educator, teacher. He graduated from Moscow University, where he later served as a professor. He explained the origin of religion by man's fear of the forces of nature. In the work “The Word of Fr. . . human concepts" raises questions of moral, mental and physical education.

Ippolit Fedorovich Bogdanovich (1743-1803)

I. F. Bogdanovich - educator, poet, translator. Graduated from Moscow University (1761). Translated the works of Voltaire, J. J. Rousseau, D. Diderot and others. Publisher of the magazine “Innocent Exercise”, the newspaper “St. Petersburg Vedomosti”. Author of collections of poems, lyrical comedies, dramatic works, stylized as Russian folk tales.

Ivan Ivanovich Betskoy (1704-1795)

I. I. Betskoy - professional teacher, chief adviser to Catherine II on educational issues (since 1763). Pedagogical views were formed under the influence of J. A. Komensky, D. Locke, J. J. Rousseau, D. Diderot. He drew up projects for the education of “ideal nobles” in closed educational institutions of a class nature. The founder of such educational institutions as the educational school for boys at the Academy of Arts (1764) and the Academy of Sciences (1765), the Institute of Noble Maidens at the Resurrection Monastery (Smolny Institute) (1764), a commercial school in Moscow (1772), each of which had its own charter and should have focused on the development of the student’s unique personality.

He outlined his pedagogical views in the works “General Institution on the Education of Both Sexes of Youth” (1764), “A Brief Instruction Selected from the Best Authors, with Some Physical Notes on the Education of Children from Birth to Adolescence” (1766). He believed that upbringing should be consistent with the nature of children, developing in them such qualities as courtesy, decency, hard work, the ability to manage oneself, etc. Education without upbringing, in his opinion, only harms the child’s nature, spoils him, and turns him away from virtues.

Nikolai Gavrilovich Kurganov (1726-1796)

N. G. Kurganov - teacher, writer, translator, teacher of mathematics, astronomy and navigation in the Naval Cadet Corps. Author of textbooks “General Geometry” (1765), “Universal Arithmetic” (1757), etc. “Russian Universal Grammar” (1769, later called “Pismovnik”) collected historical, natural science, philological knowledge - one of the most famous books of the late 18th century - first half of the 19th centuries.

Fyodor Vasilyevich Krechetov (c. 1740 - after 1801)

F.V. Krechetov - public figure, educator. He advocated limiting autocracy, equal rights for citizens, freedom of speech, and the full dissemination of knowledge among the people. In 1786, he began publishing the magazine “Not Everything and Not Nothing,” which was banned by censorship. In 1793 he was arrested and sentenced to indefinite solitary confinement in the Peter and Paul Fortress and then in the Shlisselburg Fortress. Released under an amnesty in 1801, his further fate is unknown.

Fyodor Ivanovich Yankovic de Mirievo (1741-1814)

F. I. Yankovich de Mirievo - teacher, member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, translator of Western European textbooks and school charters, one of the authors of the “Charter of Public Schools in the Russian Empire” (1786), reforming school education. He proposed the creation of small public schools in county towns and villages (training period - 2 years) and main public schools in provincial cities (training period - 5 years).

According to the “Charter,” a class-lesson system was introduced, a clear list of schoolchildren’s responsibilities was given, and corporal punishment was prohibited.
Yankovic de Mirievo led the development of training plans for the land, naval and artillery corps. He proclaimed education to be the “single means” of the public good.

Ekaterina Romanovna Dashkova (1743-1810)

E. R. Dashkova - princess, writer, public figure, director of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences and president of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1783-1806).

She contributed to the development of scientific, educational and publishing activities in Russia. She was a supporter of the ideas of free education. On her initiative, the “Dictionary of the Russian Academy” was published (in 6 volumes, 1789-1794).

Alexander Fedorovich Bestuzhev (1761-1810)

A. F. Bestuzhev - educator, teacher. He outlined his pedagogical views in the treatise “On the military education of relatively noble youth,” which he published in the St. Petersburg Journal.

He developed the foundations of a two-year course in morality, which involved the formation of ideas about civic and family responsibilities, and moral education. He considered the goal of education and upbringing to be the preparation of hardworking and useful citizens to society who are able to subordinate personal interests to state ones. He was an opponent of corporal punishment in education and encouraged female education, focused on the “inner decoration of the mind” rather than on external splendor.

Nikolai Ivanovich Novikov (1744-1818)

N.I. Novikov - educator, writer, book publisher. He financed two private schools, published the children's magazine “Children's Reading for the Mind and Heart,” and created pedagogical and translation seminaries at Moscow University.

He outlined his pedagogical views in the articles “On the Education and Instruction of Children” (1783), “On the Early Beginning of Children’s Education” (1784), etc. His program provided for the harmonious development of the physical, moral and mental abilities of the individual. The central idea is to educate good citizens, happy and useful to society, patriots. He believed that the path to higher human morality runs mainly through overcoming ignorance and full-fledged education and upbringing. He assigned a large role in moral education to the family, but gave preference to school education, which opens up opportunities for communication and competition for children and teaches behavior in society. He considered systematic education to be the main means of mental education. He believed that the education of youth of all classes is the primary responsibility of every parent and ruler of the country. Education, according to N.I. Novikov, includes three main parts: physical, moral and “education of the mind.”
After the suppression of the Pugachev uprising (1775), Novikov’s activities came into conflict with official policy. In 1792 he was arrested and imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress without trial. In 1796 he was released, but without permission to continue his activities.

Literature

Anthology of pedagogical thought in Russia in the 18th century. - M., 1985.

Bobrovnikova V.K. Pedagogical ideas and activities of M.V. Lomonosov / Ed. M.K. Goncharova. - M., 1961.
Denisov A.P. Leonty Filippovich Magnitsky. - M, 1967.
Dzhurinsky A. N. History of pedagogy: Textbook. allowance - M., 2000.
Zhurakovsky G.E. From the history of education in pre-revolutionary Russia. -M. , 1978.
Zavarzina L. E. Historical essays on Russian pedagogy: philosophical and educational aspect. - Voronezh, 1998.
History of pedagogy and education. From the origins of education in primitive society to the end of the 20th century. : Textbook. allowance / Ed. A.I. Piskunova. -M. , 2001.
Kapterev P.F. History of Russian pedagogy. 2nd ed. - Pg., 1915.
Kosheleva O. E. “Your childhood” in Ancient Rus' and in Russia of the Enlightenment (XVT-XVIII centuries). - M., 2000.
Yu. Kurochkina I. N. Russian pedagogy: Pages of formation (VIII-XVIII centuries). - M. -2002.
Lomonosov M.V. About upbringing and education. - M., 1991.
Novikov N.I. Selected pedagogical works / Comp. N. A. Grushin. -M. , 1959.
Essays on the history of school and pedagogical thought of the peoples of the USSR. XVIII-first half of the XIX century. / Ed. M. F. Shabaeva. - M., 1973.
Smirnov S. History of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy -M. , 1985.
Sychev-Mikhailov V.K. From the history of Russian school and pedagogy of the 18th century. - M., 1960.

PEDAGOGY AND SCHOOL IN RUSSIA IN THE XIX - EARLY XX CENTURIES

Key Ideas

Reforming all levels of education: primary, higher and secondary schools; discussions about the ways of development of Russian culture and education between Westerners and Slavophiles; search for the national ideal of education and the model of the Russian national school; democratization of education; establishment of a teacher education system; active renewal of pedagogy at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries.

Main events and facts

1802 - formation of the Ministry of Public Education, created for the purpose of “educating youth and disseminating sciences.” He was in charge (until 1917) of educational institutions, the Academy of Sciences, and learned societies. One of the most important tasks was the establishment of universities.

1803-1804 - publication of the “Preliminary Rules of Public Education” and the “Charter of Educational Institutions Subordinate to Universities,” which determined the structure of the education system in the first quarter of the 19th century. , four main successive education systems: parish schools with a one-year course of study, two-year district schools that prepare for high school and provide “the necessary knowledge, consistent with their state in industry”; gymnasiums that prepared for university and “provided the information necessary for a well-educated person,” universities, the main task of which was to be the training of government officials.
1811 - opening of the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum (in 1843 renamed Alexandrovsky). A closed educational institution for children of hereditary nobles. The duration of study is six (then eight) years. Education was equivalent to university education. The director was the famous educator V.F. Malinovsky. The Lyceum educated people in the spirit of patriotism, faith in their calling, and joy from the consciousness of duty to the Fatherland. Among the first graduates are A. S. Pushkin, the Decembrists I. Pushchin, V. Kuchelbecker, diplomat A. M. Gorchakov.
1828 - “The Charter of gymnasiums and schools run by universities” was published. While maintaining four levels of education, the principle was put forward: “each class has its own level of education.” Parochial schools - for the lower classes, district schools - for the children of merchants and artisans, gymnasiums - for the children of nobles and officials. After discussions, a compromise was adopted, in which “it was forbidden to create obstacles” to those who wanted to improve their social status.
1860 - preparation of a new school reform. The “Regulations on Women's Schools of the Ministry of Public Education” were published, establishing two types of women's schools (study period six years and three years). Women's schools were non-class educational institutions that provided secondary education, but did not set the task of preparing girls for further education.
1864 - reform of the primary education system. The “Regulations on Primary Public Schools” were published, the purpose of which was seen to be the establishment of religious and moral concepts among the people and the dissemination of initial useful information. The duration of training and the age of students are not limited. A new “Charter of gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums” was approved, distinguishing between classical gymnasiums (40% of the time was devoted to the study of ancient languages, preparing for admission to the university) and real gymnasiums (subjects of the natural cycle predominated; preparing for admission to higher technical and agricultural educational institutions).
1868 - a new university charter was published, according to which universities received greater independence (election of rector, professors, deans, etc.).
1871 - new “Charter of gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums”, reorganizing real gymnasiums into real schools, giving the opportunity to begin practical activities immediately after graduation.

Ministers of public education who made the greatest contribution to the development of education and enlightenment in Russia in the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Pyotr Vasilyevich Zavadovsky - the first Minister of Public Education (1802-1810). He established educational districts and opened parish (rural) schools. Opened the first pedagogical institute. Granted autonomy to universities.

Alexander Nikolaevich Golitsyn - minister from 1816 to 1824. Strengthened the clerical character of public education. The responsibilities of universities began to include training teachers of theology for secondary schools.
Alexander Semenovich Shishkov - minister from 1824 to 1828. Prepared a radical reform of public education. He asserted the priority of education over training, which should be consistent with the need for the “sciences” of each class. He put forward the idea of ​​“Russian education,” which he understood as the formation of a religious feeling of love for the Fatherland and Orthodoxy, adherence to such “Russian” values ​​as meekness, obedience, mercy, and hospitality.
Sergei Semenovich Uvarov - minister from 1834 to 1849. Founder of the classical education system. He set the task of forming a system of comprehensive state control over upbringing and education. Unified the curricula and programs of educational institutions. Significantly expanded the network of secondary educational institutions and qualitatively improved the system of training teachers. He put forward three principles as a pedagogical platform for upbringing and education: Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality.
Evgraf Petrovich Kovalevsky - minister from 1858 to 1861. Raised the question of universal primary education, opened the first Sunday schools. Resigned from the post of minister in protest against the use of repression against participants in student unrest.
Alexander Vasilyevich Golovnin - minister from 1862 to 1866. He led the reform of higher and secondary education. He advocated a broad discussion of the activities of the Ministry of Public Education.
Dmitry Andreevich Tolstoy - minister from 1866 to 1880. Conducted new educational reforms. He acted as a consistent defender of noble interests, believing that the noble class should maintain its political positions and cultural and moral influence in society. He sought to maintain state control over educational institutions.
Pavel Nikolaevich Ignatiev - minister 1915-1916. Under his leadership, an education reform project was developed, which included the introduction of universal primary education, the formation of national identity among students, the expansion of vocational and special education, and the reduction of the teaching of “dead languages” in gymnasiums. School was given priority. The transformation of the education management system and its democratization were planned. The reform was not implemented, but many of its ideas and curriculum materials were used in the creation of the Soviet school, and also served as guidance for Russian schools abroad.

Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin (1766-1826)

N. M. Karamzin is a Russian writer, publicist, and outstanding historian, whose works played a huge educational role in raising the national self-awareness of Russia. Karamzin's literary activity had a significant influence on the development of personality problems in Russian literature and the depiction of the inner world of man. In his works “History of the Russian State”, “Notes on Ancient and New Russia” Karamzin not only illuminated many little-known pages of Russian history, but also consistently pursued the idea of ​​continuity in culture and education, and the need for liberal reforms.

Ivan Petrovich Pnin (1773-1805)

I. P. Pnin - educator, poet, publicist. Together with A. F. Bestuzhev, he published the “St. Petersburg Journal” (1798), paying considerable attention to pedagogical issues. In his main work, “An Experience on Enlightenment in Relation to Russia” (1804), he examined the problems of upbringing and education from a socio-political point of view. He considered the freedom of citizens a necessary condition for the existence of an enlightened society. The tasks of upbringing and education were determined separately for schools of each class; in accordance with the requirements of the students’ intended profession, he outlined the scope and content of general education courses and provided for the study of some special disciplines.

Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky (1783-1852)

V. A. Zhukovsky - poet, translator, academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, since 1815 permanent secretary of the literary society "Arzamas", which was of an educational nature. He saw education as the main means of achieving progress by human society. Since 1817, teacher of the Russian language of Grand Duchess Alexandra Feodorovna (future empress). In 1826-41. - mentor of the future Emperor Alexander II, whom Zhukovsky sought to educate as an enlightened and fair monarch, paying great attention to religious and moral problems.

Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky (1792-1856)

N. I. Lobachevsky is an outstanding mathematician, creator of non-Euclidean geometry, figure in university education and public education. The basis of Lobachevsky’s methodological and pedagogical theory is constant attention to the educational aspects of science, the search for the philosophical foundations of scientific knowledge, optimal pedagogical means and ways of transmitting knowledge. Issues related to schooling are systematized in the work “Instructions for Mathematics Teachers in Gymnasiums” (1828).

Ivan Vasilievich Kireevsky (1806-1856)

I. V. Kireevsky is a philosopher, publicist, one of the first representatives of Slavophilism in Russian culture. He saw the source of the crisis of European enlightenment in the departure from religious principles and the loss of spiritual integrity. He believed that Western rationalism should be contrasted with the Russian worldview, based on feeling and faith.

Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov (1810-1881)

N. I. Pirogov - public figure, surgeon, teacher. He expressed his pedagogical credo in the article “Questions of Life” (1856). Taking as a basis the ideas of J. -J. Rousseau put forward the formation of a highly moral personality with a broad intellectual outlook as the main goal of education. He considered it necessary to restructure the entire education system based on the principles of humanism and democracy, based on a scientific approach and taking into account the continuity of all levels of education. He considered the tasks of education subordinate to the education and moral development of the individual. He considered corporal punishment as a means of humiliating children. The main character in the reformed educational system, according to N.I. Pirogov, was supposed to be a new teacher seeking to comprehend the world of the child. N.I. Pirogov developed a draft school system and advocated the expansion of women's education, since it is the woman who is the first educator of the younger generation. The main place in the pedagogical heritage is occupied by issues of self-knowledge of the individual through education. He believed that each individual is characterized by a constant struggle between internal (biological) and external (universal) nature, and the only way to bring the natural and social in a person to harmony is through education.

The period of the reign of Catherine the Great, historians, despite all the disputes and contradictions, unanimously call the era of enlightened absolutism. During her reign, the first women's educational institution in Russia appeared, and she was responsible for many innovative solutions in the field of education.

The Empress took her first serious steps towards creating a school system back in the 1760s: in 1764, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens and the Educational Society for Noble Maidens were opened. In 1766, it adopted a new charter of the Land Noble Corps. Developing in 1775 the decree “Institutions for the management of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire,” she assigned the responsibility of opening schools at the provincial and district levels to the orders of public charity.

In 1781, the Empress founded an educational institution at St. Isaac's Cathedral, which laid the foundation for a whole network of schools, the development of which was legislated in a decree of February 27 of the same year. A year later, on April 8, the system was developed throughout Russia.

Austrian experience

The entire initial period of school education in Russia is associated with one (as in many similar stories, foreign) name - Fedor Ivanovich Yankovic de Mirievo.

Empress Catherine II learned about this Serb living in Austria and speaking Russian in 1780 in Mogilev from the Austrian Emperor Joseph II, who boasted to her about the Austrian educational reform. Several years earlier, De Mirievo, as director of provincial schools, took an active part in building a coherent system of primary and higher public schools, careful training of teachers and the establishment of a special educational administration.

Yankovic de Mirievo became a real find for Catherine. Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org Catherine liked the stories, and she decided to borrow the Austrian experience and instill it on Russian soil. It would be difficult to imagine a better leader for such a project than the Russian-speaking and Orthodox de Mirievo. At the invitation of the Empress, he moved to Russia in 1782 - by that time several city schools were already operating in St. Petersburg, but there was no real system in their work.

Immediately upon his arrival, Catherine issued a decree establishing the Commission of Public Schools. It was headed by the future Minister of Public Education, the Tsarina’s favorite, Pyotr Zavadovsky, while Yankovic was an expert employee. However, it was he who did the main work: he drew up plans, created a teachers’ seminary (the future pedagogical institute), and translated teaching aids into Russian. The commission kindly “did not interfere” with this.

For three years, Yankovic remained the director of public schools in the St. Petersburg province and in this position managed to create a system for training teachers and prohibit corporal punishment in the main public school.

Later, Yankovic became a member of the commission on schools under the Ministry of Public Education, formed in 1802, but after two years he left the service forever due to excessive fatigue.

School reform

Introducing the Austrian system in Russia, Yankovic de Mirievo proposed dividing public schools into three types: small (two classes), medium (three classes) and main (four classes).

In the small school, children were taught reading, writing, basic grammar and arithmetic, sacred history and catechism. In high school they additionally studied the Gospel, the Long Catechism, spelling, general history and Russian geography. In the main school, a fourth school was added to this, in which they taught general and Russian geography, detailed general and Russian history, mathematical geography, Russian grammar with exercises, the basics of geometry, mechanics, physics, natural history and civil architecture, and drawing.

Thanks to Catherine, education became accessible even to the lower strata of society. Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org

Also in 1785, Fyodor Yankovic de Mirievo developed regulations for private boarding schools and schools, equal to public ones. It stated that the environment in educational institutions should be calm and friendly: “Most of all, it is entrusted to the keepers and teachers, so that they try to instill in their pupils and students the rules of honesty and virtue, preceding them in both deeds and words: why should they be with them, it is inseparable to remove from their eyes everything that could be a reason for temptation... to keep them, however, in the fear of God, forcing them to go to church and pray, getting up and going to bed, before starting and finishing the teaching, before the table and after the table."

In addition, Yankovic proposed raising boys and girls together, for whom separate rooms would be provided in boarding houses. This provision was repealed in 1804. It is worth noting that Yankovic’s moral and pedagogical instructions were not very popular in the Russian educational environment, since they greatly raised the bar and did not correspond to the level from which the reform began.

According to the “Charter of Public Schools in the Russian Empire,” published in 1786, it was prescribed that “there should be one main public school in each provincial city.” These institutions accepted children of all classes, with the exception of serfs. At the head of the school was a director or caretaker, who obeyed the provincial order of public charity. Small schools with a two-year period of study were created in district towns, and “main schools” were opened along with them in provincial towns.

After the school reform of 1804 (which coincided with the retirement of Jankovic de Mirievo), the main public schools were transformed into gymnasiums.

The 18th century occupies a special place in the history of education and upbringing in Russia. It was in this century that the secular school was created; an attempt was made to organize a state system of public education; The fundamentals of secular education and upbringing of children were first developed in Tory and applied in practice.

In the development of school and education in the 18th century, there are 4 periods:

I period – 1st quarter of the 18th century. This was the time of the creation of the first secular schools, which provided basic practical knowledge necessary in the context of reforms in various aspects of social life.

II period – 1730 – 1765. – the emergence of closed class noble educational institutions, the formation of a system of noble education and at the same time M. Lomonosov’s struggle for public education and the creation of Moscow University.

III period – 1766–1782. – development of educational pedagogical ideas, the growing role of Moscow University, awareness of the need for a state system of public education, reform of educational institutions.

IV period – school reform 1782–1786. - the first attempt to create a state system of public education.

So, at the beginning of the 18th century. The following were opened: Navigation School, Artillery (Pushkar) School, Medical School, Engineering School, two Mining Schools (one at the Olenets, the other at the Ural Plants). The schools aimed to train specialists in certain sectors of the economy and officers for the army and navy. The Engineering School, the highest classes of the Artillery School, and the Naval Academy trained officers from among the children of the nobility.

The navigation school trained sailors, engineers, artillerymen, teachers for other schools, surveyors, architects, and civil officials. Those who did not know how to read and write entered the 1st grade, called the Russian school, then moved to the arithmetic class. Children of commoners usually completed their studies and became clerks, assistant architects, etc.

The children of the nobles were obliged to study further and mastered geometry, trigonometry, geodesy, navigation, architecture, navigation, astronomy, and fencing. Some of those who graduated from schools were sent abroad to improve their knowledge and serve on warships. In total, 800 people studied in these schools in Moscow and St. Petersburg. These were the first secular schools. Despite strict decrees, many minors did not come to the School. For failure to appear at school, they could be sent to galley work, beaten with batogs, and punished with a fine. Those who fled from school were caught, put under guard, and sometimes even their estate was taken away from the treasury. In addition, in each class there was a guy who, at the slightest disorder, beat the students with a whip, regardless of any rank, and among the pupils there were children of even the most noble families. Training was in Russian and according to Russian textbooks. When teaching literacy, they followed the old order: first they taught the alphabet, then the book of hours, the psalter in Church Slavonic, then the reading of the civil press. The remaining sciences were taught separately.

Main teaching method- memorizing textbooks. However, these schools had their results. Admirals grew from navigators: Golovin, Prince Golitsyn, Kalmykov, Lopukhin, Sheremetyev, etc. The first domestic engineers, artillerymen, topographers, surveyors came from the same school.

In 1701, an artillery (pushkar) school was established in Moscow at the cannon yard. At first, children of different classes studied there; subsequently - mainly children of the nobility. At the same time, the Moscow and St. Petersburg engineering schools were opened, and later they were also merged into one. And the Artillery School was founded in St. Petersburg.

The main task of these schools is preparation for practical activities. The students lived in “free apartments”, there was little order in the teaching, the teachers beat their students mercilessly. Later, the artillery and engineering schools were combined into one. The range of disciplines was expanded through the introduction of chemistry, physics, history, geography, foreign languages, dance, drawing, and fireworks art. Education in all these institutions consisted of instilling the rules of morality, ambition, and subordination. The main method of punishment is caning in the presence of pupils. Methods of encouragement - silver and gilded medals with the image of the monogram of the Empress - Catherine II. It was mainly reserved for excellent students.

After the death of Peter I, various transformations of educational institutions were carried out. This was caused by the following reasons: In the 30s, the nobility presented to the authorities a demand to abolish the order of military service established by Peter I: to allow noble youths to enter military service in the rank of officer, bypassing the difficult “soldier’s school”, which seemed humiliating to them. The nobles received this right. Therefore, the need arose to teach children military affairs “from an early age.” For this purpose, gentry and cadet corps were opened: Marine and Land. In 1752, on the basis of the Maritime Academy, the Marine Nobility Corps for nobles was established, and the School of Navigation Sciences was liquidated. The nobles were transferred to the Naval Corps, while the children of the commoners were transferred to various services.

In 1759, the Corps of Pages was established to train and educate the children of the noble nobility. It consisted of 3 classes of 50 people each and one higher (chamber-page) class for 16 people. An important event in the life of Russia was the establishment of the Academy of Sciences in 1725. Its task was not only to take care of the “propagation of sciences”, but also to train scientists and educated people. The Academy was to have universities and gymnasiums.

Those who successfully graduated from the gymnasium had to listen to lectures by academicians, forming a university with three faculties. The main disciplines studied at the university were mathematics, physics, philosophy, history, and law. However, the teaching process at the university was primitive. Professors usually did not give lectures, students were recruited as recruits, mainly from other educational institutions and for the most part turned out to be very unprepared. Students were flogged for their rudeness. There were not enough funds for maintenance and development. Moscow University, founded in 1755, was not in a better position. There were 100 students at the opening. 30 years later - 82. In 1765, there was one student on the lists in the entire law faculty, and a year later the same position was in the medical faculty. During the entire reign of Catherine, not a single physician received a diploma, because... failed the exam. Lectures were given by Europeans in French or Latin. The higher nobility were reluctant to go to university. One of his contemporaries noted that not only was it impossible to learn anything there, but it was also possible to lose the respectable manners acquired at home. Lomonosov tried to change the situation. During his lifetime, he managed to do a lot, but after his death, his university practically ceased to exist, there were only 2 students. The reason was obvious: the nobility preferred a brilliant military and civilian career to modest academic activity.

Simultaneously with the university, 2 academic gymnasiums were founded: one for nobles, the other for commoners. The commoners were taught mainly painting, theatrical art, singing, and music. The gymnasium for nobles teaches ancient classical languages, French, German, philosophy, ancient literature and many other subjects. The level of teaching, however, was very low. As a rule, students did not shine with their knowledge, but they received medals.

The nature of education in gymnasiums was distinguished by humanity. Teachers were advised to avoid cruelty and punishment.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES OF KAZAN UNIVERSITY

Volume 155, book. 3, part 1

Humanitarian sciences

PROBLEMS OF NATIONAL HISTORY AND HISTORIOGRAPHY OF NEW TIMES

UDC 94(47).04 "1786/1788"

THE BEGINNING OF SCHOOL REFORM IN THE KAZAN GOVERNOR (1786-1788)

G.V. Ibneeva, G.R. Kinzyabulatova Abstract

The article analyzes the first results of the implementation of school reform in the Kazan governorship, prepared by the government of Catherine II. The research is based on office documents from the 80s of the 18th century: semi-annual reports on the state of schools and historical reports on the state of public schools in the Kazan governorship. The authors consider the process of preparation for the opening of the Kazan Main Public School, characterize the teaching staff, as well as the social composition of students. The article reveals the problems associated with the financial support of public schools, noting that the main source of material support was donations from local philanthropists.

Key words: Russian Empire, governorship, school reform, main and small schools, national school.

Second half of the 18th century. - this is the time of formation and development of the state system of secondary and primary educational institutions in the Russian Empire. The basis for these processes was the reforms carried out by the government of Catherine II. It was then that the institutionalization of the school system took place, which generally contributed to the creation of the state education system. The reform in the field of education, carried out in the 80s of the 18th century, became one of the most important areas of transformative activity of the government of Catherine II.

The creation of a mass general education and all-class school could consolidate the results of the socio-economic transformations carried out by the government of Catherine II. The first stage in the formation of a large-scale school education system in the Russian Empire occurred in the early 80s. The study of this side of Russian history of this period has undoubted scientific significance. It was the centralized system of management of public education that made it possible to transition to more modern forms of economic, social and cultural life of the Russian Empire.

The beginning of the formation of the state general education system in the Russian Empire was the creation of the Commission on the Establishment of Schools, as well as the approval of the “Charter of Public Schools in the Russian Empire,” which gave the new educational system a solid legislative basis.

The practical significance of the Charter of 1786 in the history of public education was determined by the broad understanding of the tasks and scope of education on which all previous educational reform projects were based. One of their common features was that the characteristics of schools and school reform were compiled according to a certain scheme. The Charter of 1786 contained the concept of a type of school, determined the duration of education in it, set out the basics of the curriculum, and listed general education subjects.

This article solves the problem of showing the first results (1786-1788) of the school reform in the Kazan governorship. In addition to sources already known in the literature on the topic, the study involved semi-annual reports on the state of schools and historical reports on the state of public schools in the Kazan governorship, and other unpublished materials of all-Russian content.

We will not dwell in detail on the Charter of public schools of 1786, since it has been analyzed to the smallest detail by researchers; we will only pay attention to those points that are important when considering the issue of creating a main public school in the Kazan governorate.

According to the Charter of 1786, educational institutions of two types were established - main and small public schools. The first opened one in each provincial city, and the second - one in each district city. The main school was a four-year school with a five-year course of study (in the last class the training was two years), the small school was a two-year school. The main ones were entrusted with the task of training teachers for small schools. Both educational institutions were of a general education nature. Each main school had 6 teachers: two teachers for grades 3-4, one each for grades 1 and 2, and one for teaching drawing and a foreign language. The schools were under the supervision of the governor, who managed them through orders of public charity, persons responsible for the economic part and directors in charge of the educational part (PSZ, No. 16421, pp. 646-669). Thus, the “Charter of Public Schools of 1786” laid the foundation for the state school system, which was general education and classless in nature.

An important stage in the implementation of educational reform should be considered the decree “On the opening of public schools” of August 12, 1786 (PSZ, No. 16425, p. 672). It was with this decree that the implementation of large-scale school reform began. On September 22, 1786, the main public schools were opened in 25 provinces and governorates of the Russian Empire, including in the Kazan governorate.

The opening of the Kazan Main Public School took place on the appointed date - September 22, 1786, on the day of the twenty-fourth anniversary of the coronation of Catherine II (RGIA. F. 730. Op. 2. No. 1278. L. 2).

It should be noted that the opening of the Kazan Main School was accompanied by a solemn ceremony, modeled in detail on the ceremonies of other schools. In the Kazan governorship, this ceremony took place as follows: “On the eve of this day, an all-night vigil took place in the cathedral and in all other churches; the next day in the morning, all the teachers, together with their students, of whom there were 20 in number, walked from the school house to the cathedral, where Ambrose spoke and preached, and performed the Divine Liturgy...” (RGIA. F. 730. Op. 2. No. 1278. L. 2). After the end of the solemn liturgy and an edifying word spoken by Archbishop Ambrose, which emphasized that Catherine II is one of the most worthy enlightened rulers, a festive dinner followed in the house of Governor General Meshchersky (RGIA. F. 730. Op. 2. No. 1278. L . 2-2 vol.).

The central place in the Charter of 1786 is occupied by the section “On teaching positions,” which formulates the basic requirements for school teachers. The most important qualities of a school teacher are “righteousness and piety”; thorough knowledge in all the sciences that he must teach, the ability to teach them “intelligibly and clearly.” His “tender love for youth” was to be combined with “moderate severity.” In addition, he should have had great patience and “perfect impartiality” (PSZ, No. 16422, p. 649).

Teacher training was of great importance within the framework of ongoing educational reforms. According to the Charter of 1786, governors and trustees of public schools were required to ensure the training of future teachers to teach in small public schools. The recruitment of teachers was supposed to be carried out from among students in theological seminaries. Therefore, following the instructions of the authorities, in particular the order of Governor General P.S. Meshchersky and the proposal of the trustee of the public school I.A. Tatishchev, from the Kazan seminary four students were presented to the main public school for retraining for teaching (RGIA. F. 730. Op. 2. No. 1278. L. 3 vol.).

Pyotr Sirotkin and Alexey Fialkovsky were appointed teachers of the 3rd and 4th grades at the newly opened public school. The first was assigned to teaching arithmetic, mechanics and geometry, the second - general and Russian history and geography. 1st grade teacher Stepan Smirnov taught the ABC book, introduced the rules for students, and taught the abbreviated catechism. 2nd grade teacher Spiridon Nikolaev taught penmanship and the first part of arithmetic (RGIA. F. 730. Op. 2. No. 1278. L. 3). The specified distribution of subjects strictly complied with the Charter of public schools. The training of drawing and foreign language teachers for the main public schools of provincial cities was not carried out at the teachers' seminary in St. Petersburg.

Let us note that the high school teachers Pyotr Sirotkin and Alexey Fialkovsky were natives of the Simbirsk governorship. 2nd grade teacher Spiridon Nikolaev came from the Spassky district of the Kazan governorship. 1st grade teacher Stepan Smirnov came from the Demitrovsky district of the Moscow province. All four teachers previously studied in diocesan

seminaries, and then at the St. Petersburg Teachers' Seminary, as was required by the Charter of 1786 (RGIA. F. 730. Op. 2. No. 1278. L. 3).

At the time of the opening of the Kazan School, 20 students were admitted to it. The diversity of the social composition of students indicated interest in education in all segments of the population. Materials from semi-annual reports on the state of schools make it possible to establish the class composition of students at the Kazan school. At the beginning of 1787, people from merchants and townspeople accounted for 53% of them, courtyard people - 13%, children of lower ranks of the army and Cossacks - 21%, children of nobles, officers, and officials - 13%. These data allow us to conclude that representatives of the nobility and officials did not want to study together with representatives of the lower classes (RGIA. F. 730. Op. 2. No. 1278. L. 3 vol.).

An important source for characterizing the age of students at the Kazan Main School are the personal lists of students (RGIA. F. 730. Op. 2. No. 1278. L. 3-12). The age of the students varied widely. In the first grade, students aged from 5 to 19 years predominated, in the second grade - from 8 to 14 years, in the third grade - 9-13 years, in the fourth - 10-18 years (RGIA. F. 730. Op. 2. No. 1278. L. 3-12).

Not only ceremonial events, for example on the occasion of the opening of schools, but also public tests, which were prescribed by the Charter every six months, were called upon to maintain public interest in school affairs. Public exams were first held at the Kazan Main School on February 3, 1877 in the presence of Archbishop Ambrose, Governor-General Meshchersky, trustee of the public school Tatishchev “and other noble nobility and merchants”1 (RGIA. F. 730. Op. 2. No. 1278. L. 4).

Starting from the first public examinations, it became a custom to celebrate this event by rewarding distinguished students with books and teachers with cloth. In addition, all distinguished students and teachers “had the honor of being served at Meshchersky’s dinner table” (RGIA. F. 730. Op. 2. No. 1278. L. 3). This was one of the measures, the purpose of which was not only to encourage capable and talented students and their mentors, but also to increase the authority of the new school.

In general, it can be stated that all the popularization events carried out had a positive impact on the future fate of the school. Already based on the results of the first public test, it becomes possible to open a 4th class consisting of 12 people (RGIA. F. 730. Op. 2. No. 1278. L. 3).

The charter of 1786 defined a wide range of general education subjects required for the public school program. The educational subjects specified in the Charter and the order of their study were not subject to change. At the Kazan School during 1789, students in grades 1-3 were able to master a number of academic disciplines. The first class learned to write, studied the catechism in an abbreviated form, the ancient period of history (RGIA. F. 730. Op. 2. No. 1273. L. 3-6). The second grade continued to study the catechism, arithmetic to addition of named numbers, and “finished reading” the history of the Old Testament (RGIA. F. 730. Op. 2. No. 1273. L. 710). In the third grade they continued studying grammar, arithmetic, geography,

1 Subsequently, public examinations with the participation of the archbishop, governor-general, trustee and other noble guests began to be held twice a year (RGIA. F. 730. Op. 2. No. 1278. L. 4 vol.).

history of Greece (RGIA. F. 730. Op. 2. No. 1273. L. 10-11). In the fourth, they repeated Russian geography, taught general history, Russian grammar (RGIA. F. 730. Op. 2. No. 1273. L. 11-12).

In the semi-annual reports on the state of the Kazan Main Public School for 1789, in addition to the total number of students, various characteristics of students are presented. Most students were characterized by “good behavior,” “honest conduct,” “good service,” and “moderate diligence.” Their abilities were assessed as “good”, “understandable”, “mediocre” and “stupid” (RGIA. F. 730. Op. 2. No. 1278. L. 3-12).

When creating public schools, the main difficulty was the financial support of educational institutions. The management of economic affairs and the maintenance of schools was entrusted to the governors and the orders of public charity subordinate to them. All private educational institutions and their teaching staff also came under the control of the latter. The charter of 1786, which regulated the educational process in detail, did not address the issue of funds for the maintenance of schools, noting only that public charity orders were obliged to independently resolve this issue without wasting the state treasury (PSZ, No. 16425). Thus, the state removed itself from financing educational institutions, making their existence entirely dependent on the presence of a need for them in provincial society, and therefore the desire to invest in their development.

The main source of funding for schools was funds from local philanthropists, since state expenses for maintaining educational institutions were minimal. Thanks to semi-annual reports on the state of schools, we are able to determine the attitude of the wealthy strata of the Kazan governorship to the educational plans of Catherine II. Let's look at some statistics. At the opening of the Kazan Main School, Archbishop Ambrose, after a prayer service and blessing of water, made a brief greeting, the first to contribute 50 rubles, the governor-general and the trustee - 100 rubles each, after them both the “noble nobility and eminent merchants” made their donations (RGIA. F. 730. Op. 2. No. 1278. L. 2).

There is information that the Kazan nobility, “seeing the good in learning,” decided in 1788 to add 20 kopecks from each person to the Order of Public Charity; as a result, an amount of 2968 rubles was collected. 60 kopecks (RGIA. F. 730. Op. 2. No. 1278. L. 4 vol.). The funds received from benefactors were small, but they also provided significant financial support for the schools.

It should be noted that the local administration, achieving success in spreading education, preferred to present it to the public as a result of the manifestation of social activity of certain class groups. Thus, during a visit to the Kazan Main People's School by Count Alexei Romanovich Vorontsov in April 1787, the merchants wished to make donations “in favor of the people's school of 5,000 rubles.” (RGIA. F. 730. Op. 2. No. 1278. L. 4).

In February 1789, Governor I.A. died. Tatishchev, as a result of which Major General Prince Semyon Mikhailovich Barataev was appointed to this position.

Already on July 1, he visited the Kazan Main School (RGIA. F. 730. Op. 2. No. 1278. L. 5). His first initiative was to eliminate the shortage of educational books in the main school (RGIA. F. 730. Op. 2. No. 1278. L. 5).

During 1789, Barataev demanded compliance with the rules of the Charter on the inspection of small public schools by the director at least once a year. He personally conducted audits in a number of district towns - Sviyazhsk, Tsivilsk, Yadrin, Koz-Modemyansk, Cheboksary (RGIA. F. 730. Op. 2. No. 1278. L. 5 vol.). The purpose of these trips was not so much supervision as the dissemination of public education through practical assistance in opening small schools. In particular, on August 30, 1789, a small public school was opened in Cheboksary. The service was performed by the abbot of the Trinity Monastery Sevastyanov. “For the benefit of learning,” citizens contributed 400 rubles. There were 38 students. Student Mikhail Golosnitsky was appointed teacher (RGIA. F. 730. Op. 2. No. 1278. L. 5 vol.).

To manage local schools, the Charter of 1786 provided for the position of superintendent of schools. The caretakers were chosen by the trustee (governor), as a rule, from among the residents of the cities in which small public schools were located. The lack of monetary incentives and a large range of responsibilities (regularly visiting schools, monitoring the state of educational affairs and the financial situation of institutions) led to the fact that when schools opened, it was not immediately possible to find anyone willing to take up the post of superintendent. Thus, Barataev entrusts the supervision of a small school in Cheboksary to the merchant Lev Klyuev (RGIA. F. 730. Op. 2. No. 1278. L. 5 vol.).

On June 23 and December 22, 1789, public tests were held at the Kazan Main School with the participation of Kazan Archimandrite Ambrose, Governor-General Meshchersky, and Governor Barataev. After the exam, the guests of honor made a donation of 925 rubles. Of these, 200 rubles. were contributed by Meshchersky, 100 rubles. - Baratayev. After the exam, according to tradition, everyone went to the dinner table with the Governor General (RGIA. F. 730. Op. 2. No. 1278. L. 5).

As a result of the implementation of educational reform in the Kazan governorship, by the end of 1789 there were 116 students in the Kazan Main School (RGIA. F. 730. Op. 2. No. 1278. L. 5).

The initial stage (1786-1788) of school reform, the first measures to expand the scope of general education showed serious changes in the views of Catherine II and her circle on the problems of education, which indicates a transformation of the ideological and political attitudes of enlightened absolutism.

The school reform of Catherine II was characterized by a system-forming character. The public schools that opened in the provinces were not just another new version of the school, they became one of the most important foundations of the state system of public education. Measures to provide educational institutions with teaching staff, basic textbooks and manuals also played a significant role in its formation.

It should be noted that the mechanism for implementing school reform consisted in a strict division of functions, on the one hand, of the central government bodies and, on the other hand, of the provincial, district and city administrations,

who were entrusted with the material support of schools and the introduction of the idea of ​​their necessity into the public consciousness. In Kazan, the public school, as a new institution that arose on the initiative of Catherine II, attracted general attention.

However, it is worth mentioning the reasons that slowed down the implementation of educational reform. The main one is the problem of material support for educational institutions. It was due primarily to the fact that the school reform project did not think through the issues of financing public schools. It was carried out not directly from the treasury, but from the income of provincial orders of public charity, which were obviously insufficient to maintain even part of the schools under their jurisdiction. Additional financial investments were required, which were mainly provided through donations from local philanthropists.

At the same time, certain failures should not obscure the positive results of the educational reform of the 80s of the 18th century. According to statistical data, in the Kazan governorship for the period 1787-1788. there is an increase in the number of students by 1.6%. It should be noted that a higher growth in the number of schools and students compared to the national average was achieved in the Kazan province primarily due to the opening of small public schools.

The socially diverse composition of students at the Kazan Main Public School testified to the interest in education in all strata of Russian society. Nevertheless, among the schoolchildren, people from unprivileged classes predominated.

In conclusion, it should be noted that it was the reform in the field of education carried out in the 80s of the 18th century that opened a new page in the history of public education in the Russian Empire. By the beginning of the reign of Alexander I, the necessary conditions had been created for the further transformation of a unified secular system of public education.

G. V. Ibneeva, G. R. Kinzyabulatova. The Beginning of the School Reform in the Kazan Vicegerency (1786-1788).

In this article, we analyze the first results of the school reform in the Kazan vicegerency, realized by the government of Catherine II in the 1780s. The research is based on the archival documents: the semi-annual records about the state of schools and the historical records about the state of public schools in the Kazan vicegerency. We examine the process of preparation for the opening of the Kazan main public school, describe its teaching staff and the social composition of pupils. We also reveal the problems connected with the financial support of public schools, when the donations of local philanthropists were the main source of their material support.

Keywords: Russian Empire, vicegerency, school reform, main and small schools, national school.

Sources

PSZ - Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire. - St. Petersburg, 1830. - T. 22. - 1168 p.

RGIA - Russian State Historical Archive (St. Petersburg). F 730 (Commission on the establishment of public schools).

Literature

1. Smagina G.I. Academy of Sciences and Russian school. Second half of the 18th century. -SPb.: Nauka, 1996. - 162 p.

2. Madariaga I. de. Russia in the era of Catherine the Great. - M.: New. lit. review, 2002. -976 p.

3. Artamonova L.M. Society, power and education in the Russian province of the 18th - early 19th centuries. (Southeastern provinces of European Russia). - Samara: Samar Publishing House. scientific Center RAS, 2001. - 392 p.

Received by the editor 12/19/12

Ibneeva Guzel Vazykhovna - Doctor of Historical Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of National History, Kazan (Volga Region) Federal University, Kazan, Russia. Email: [email protected]

Kinzyabulatova Gulnaz Ramilevna - postgraduate student of the Department of Russian History, Kazan (Volga Region) Federal University, Kazan, Russia. Email: [email protected]